Abolishing Whiteness
Preparing MSW Social Work Students for Anti-Racist Practice
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18060/24484Keywords:
Anti-racist practice, Critical Race Theory, whiteness, critical white studies, social work educationAbstract
The power, privilege, and oppression paradigm that most schools of social work currently espouse to are often taught through an experiential approach to whiteness, privileging the majority of white students with the opportunity to explore their white identity at the expense of the learning of the Black/Brown, Indigenous, People of Color (BIPOC) students in the classroom. Many BIPOC students experience these courses as a hostile environment, finding themselves and their racial group identified in contrast to whiteness – oppressed, marginalized, silenced, and powerless. This paper presents an innovative course outline using Critical Race Theory and Critical White Studies as theoretical frameworks to decenter whiteness and attend to the learning needs of BIPOC students. Using these two theoretical frameworks, students will learn the history of the racial hierarchy of humans; the social construction of whiteness, the evolution of anti-black racism and the extension to other people of color; and the relationship between white supremacy and racism.
References
Abrams, L. S., & Moio, J. A. (2009). Critical race theory and the cultural competence dilemma in social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(2), 245-261. https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2009.200700109
Adelman, L. (2003). Race: The power of an illusion. California Newsreel. https://www.racepowerofanillusion.org/
Anemone, R. (2019). Race and human diversity: A biocultural approach (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315179940
Armenta, A. (2016). Between public service and social control: Policing dilemmas in the era of immigration enforcement. Social Problems, 63(1), 111-126. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spv024
Balderrama, F. E., & Rodriguez, R. (2006). Decade of betrayal: Mexican repatriation in the 1930s. UNM Press.
Bell Jr, D. A. (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma. Harvard Law Review, 93(3), 518-533. https://doi.org/10.2307/1340546
Blake, J. (2021, January 17). The Capitol insurrection could be a bigger racial reckoning than the George Floyd protests. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/17/us/capitol-riot-racial-justice-blake/index.html
Bracero History Archive. (2020). About. http://braceroarchive.org/about
Cabrera, N. L., & Corces-Zimmerman, C. (2017). An unexamined life: White male racial ignorance and the agony of education for students of color. Equity & Excellence in Education, 50(3), 300-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2017.1336500
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2020, August 18). Cases, data, & surveillance: COVID-19 hospitalization and death by race/ethnicity. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/investigations-discovery/hospitalization-death-by-race-ethnicity.html
Chen, J. M. (2017). The contentious field of whiteness studies. Journal of Social Thought, 2(1), 15-27. https://ojs.lib.uwo.ca/index.php/jst/article/view/507/294
Commission on Educational Policy [COEP], & Commission on Accreditation [COA]. (2015). 2015 Educational policy and accreditation standards. Council on Social Work Education [CSWE]. https://www.cswe.org/Accreditation/Standards-and-Policies/2015-EPAS
Constance-Huggins, M. (2012). Critical race theory in social work education. Critical Social Work, 13(2), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.22329/csw.v13i2.5861
Corley, N. A., & Young, S. M. (2018). Is social work racist? A content analysis of recent literature. Social Work, 63(4), 317-326. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/swy042
Crenshaw, K. (1990). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241-1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
Cross, W. E. (1995). The psychology of Nigrescence: Revising the Cross model. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 93-122). Sage Publications, Inc.
Curtis-Boles, H., & Bourg, E. (2010). Experiences of students of color in a graduate-level diversity course. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 4(3), 204-212. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017985
DeCuir, J. T., & Dixson, A. D. (2004). “So when it comes out, they aren’t that surprised that it is there”: Using critical race theory as a tool of analysis of race and racism in education. Educational Researcher, 33(5), 26-31. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x033005026
DeGruy, J. (2017). Post traumatic slave syndrome: America’s legacy of injury & healing. Joy DeGruy Publications, Inc.
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical race theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York University Press.
DiAngelo, R. (2018). White fragility: Why it's so hard for white people to talk about racism. Beacon Press.
Dixon, E., & Piepzna-Samarasinha, L. L. (2020). Beyond survival: Strategies and stories from the transformative justice movement. AK Press.
Dominelli, L., & Campling, J. (2002). Anti-oppressive social work theory and practice. Macmillan International Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4039-1400-2
Donaghue, E. (2020, September 23). No charges in death of Breonna Taylor; officer indicted for endangering neighbors. CBS News. No charges in death of Breonna Taylor; officer indicted for endangering neighbors - CBS News
DuBois, W. E. B. (1920). Darkwater voices from within the veil. Harcourt, Brace.
Exec. Order No. 13950. 85 Fed. Reg. 188 (2020, September 22). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2020-09-28/pdf/FR-2020-09-28.pdf
Flagg, B. J. (1998). Was blind, but now I see: White race consciousness and the law. Michigan Law Review, 91(5), 953-1017. https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2408&context=mlr
Fong, R., Dettlaff, A., James, J., & Rodriguez, C. (Eds.). (2015). Addressing racial disproportionality and disparities in human services. Columbia University Press. https://doi.org/10.7312/fong16080
Frye, V., Camacho-Rivera, M., Salas-Ramirez, K., Albritton, T., Deen, D., Sohler, N., Barrick, S., & Nunes, J. (2020). Professionalism: The wrong tool to solve the right problem? Academic Medicine, 95(6), 860-863. https://doi.org/10.1097/acm.0000000000003266
George Washington University Health Workforce Institute. (2019). MSW Graduates by race and ethnicity: Findings from the 2018 survey of master’s of social work graduates. Author. https://cswe.org/CSWE/media/Workforce-Study/WorkforceStudy_Brief-MSW_Raceethnicity-pdf.pdf
Godoy, M., & Wood, D. (2020, May 30). Coronavirus by the numbers: What do coronavirus racial disparities look like state by state. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/05/30/865413079/what-do-coronavirus-racial-disparities-look-like-state-by-state
Graham, M. (2000). Honouring social work principles - exploring the connections between anti-racist social work and African-centred worldviews. Social Work Education, 19(5), 423-436. https://doi.org/10.1080/026154700435959
Graham, M., & Schiele, J. H. (2010). Equality-of-oppressions and ant discriminatory models in social work: Reflections from the USA and UK. European Journal of Social Work, 13(2), 231-244. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691451003690882
Grand, S. (2018). The other within: White shame, Native-American genocide. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 54(1), 84-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.2017.1415106
Green, D. (2016). The Trump Hypothesis: Testing immigrant populations as a determinant of violent and drug‐related crime in the United States. Social Science Quarterly, 97(3), 506-524. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12300
Guess, T. J. (2006). The social construction of whiteness: Racism by intent, racism by consequence. Critical Sociology, 32(4), 649-673. https://doi.org/10.1163/156916306779155199
Harley, D. A., Jolivette, K., McCormick, K., & Tice, K. (2002). Race, class, and gender: A constellation of positionalities with implications for counseling. Journal of multicultural Counseling and Development, 30(4), 216-238. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2002.tb00521.x
Hartigan Jr, J. (2008). Is race still socially constructed? The recent controversy over race and medical genetics. Science as culture, 17(2), 163-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/09505430802062943
Helms, J. E. (1997). Toward a model of White racial identity development. In P. G. Altbach, K. Arnold, & I. Carreiro King (Eds.), College student development and academic life: Psychological, intellectual, social, and moral issues (pp. 49-66). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315051888
Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory. Social psychology quarterly, 255-269. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787127
Hubain, B. S., Allen, E. L., Harris, J. C., & Linder, C. (2016). Counter-stories as representations of the racialized experiences of students of color in higher education and student affairs graduate preparation programs. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(7), 946-963. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2016.1174894
Huggins-Hoyt, K. Y., Briggs, H. E., Mowbray, O., & Allen, J. L. (2019). Privatization, racial disproportionality and disparity in child welfare: Outcomes for foster children of color. Children and Youth Services Review, 99, 125-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.01.041
Jeyapal, D. (2016). The evolving politics of race and social work activism: A call across borders. Social Work, 62(1), 45-52. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/sww069
Jeyasingham, D. (2012). White noise: A critical evaluation of social work education's engagement with Whiteness studies. The British Journal of Social Work, 42(4), 669-686. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcr110
Jones, K., & Okun, T. (2001). White supremacy culture. Dismantling racism: A workbook for social change. Western States Center. https://www.whitesupremacyculture.info/uploads/4/3/5/7/43579015/okun_-_white_sup_culture_2020.pdf
Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning: The definitive history of racist ideas in America. Nation Books.
Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an antiracist. One world.
Kennedy, A. C. (2008). Eugenics, “Degenerate girls,” and social workers during the Progressive Era. Affilia, 23(1), 22-37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109907310473
Kolivoski, K. M., Weaver, A., & Constance-Huggins, M. (2014). Critical race theory: Opportunities for application in social work practice and policy. Families in society, 95(4), 269-276. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2014.95.36
Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is critical race theory and what's it doing in a nice field like education? International journal of qualitative studies in education, 11(1), 7-24. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003005995-2
Linder, C., Harris, J. C., Allen, E. L., & Hubain, B. (2015). Building inclusive pedagogy: Recommendations from a national study of students of color in higher education and student affairs graduate programs. Equity & Excellence in Education, 48(2), 178-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2014.959270
Lopez, I. F. H. (2013). White by law. In R. Delgado & J. Stefancic (Eds.), Critical race theory: The cutting edge (3rd ed., pp. 775-782). Temple University Press.
Lorde, A. (1983). There is no hierarchy of oppressions. Bulletin: Homophobia and education, 14(3/4), 9.
Love, B. L. (2019). We want to do more than survive: Abolitionist teaching and the pursuit of educational freedom. Beacon Press.
Luconi, S. (2019). The color of citizenship: Asian Immigrants to the United States and naturalization between 1870 and 1952. RSA Journal, 30, 11-31. https://www.aisna.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Luconi.pdf
McCoy, D. L. (2014). A phenomenological approach to understanding first-generation college students of color transitions to one “extreme” predominantly white institution. College Student Affairs Journal, 32(1), 155-169.
McIntosh, P. (1990). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Independent School, 49(2), 1-7. https://nationalseedproject.org/images/documents/Knapsack_plus_Notes-Peggy_McIntosh.pdf
McIntosh, K., Gion, C., & Bastable, E. (2018). Do schools implementing SWPBIS have decreased racial and ethnic disproportionality in school discipline. PBIS Evaluation Brief. OSEP National Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. https://www.the74million.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Do-Schools-Implementing-SWPBIS-Have-Decreased-Racial-and-Ethnic-Disproportionality-in-School-Discipline.pdf
Meloni, M. (2017). Race in an epigenetic time: Thinking biology in the plural. The British Journal of Sociology, 68(3), 389-409. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12248
Menakem, R. (2017). My grandmother's hands: Racialized trauma and the pathway to mending our hearts and bodies. Central Recovery Press.
Messer, C. M., Shriver, T. E., & Beamon, K. K. (2018). Official frames and the Tulsa race riot of 1921: The struggle for reparations. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 4(3), 386-399. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649217742414
Metzl, J. M. (2019). Dying of whiteness: How the politics of racial resentment is killing America's heartland. Hachette UK.
Middleton, S., Roediger, D. R., & Shaffer, D. M. (Eds.). (2016). The construction of whiteness: An interdisciplinary analysis of race formation and the meaning of a white identity. University Press of Mississippi. https://doi.org/10.14325/mississippi/9781496805553.001.0001
National Association of Social Workers [NASW]. (2017). NASW code of ethics. https://www.socialworkers.org/About/Ethics/Code-of-Ethics/Code-of-Ethics-English
National Museum of American History. (n.d.). Defining citizenship. https://americanhistory.si.edu/democracy-exhibition/creating-citizens/defining-citizenship
Obiokoye, N. (2018). Taxation of undocumented immigrants: The uneasy connection between regulating the undocumented immigrant and fostering illegal activity. Business, Entrepreneurship & Tax Law Review, 2(2), 359-394. https://scholarship.law.missouri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=betr
Pierce, C. (1970). Offensive mechanisms. In F. B. Barbour (Ed.), The Black seventies. (pp. 265-282). Porter Sargent Publisher.
Poston, W. C. (1990). The biracial identity development model: A needed addition. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69(2), 152-155. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1990.tb01477.x
Price, M., (2020, September 24). Breonna Taylor deserved justice: No police officer will have to answer for her death. This never gets easier. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/24/opinion/breonna-taylor-charges-racism.html
Rabaka, R. (2007). The souls of white folk: WEB Du Bois’s critique of white supremacy and contributions to critical white studies. Journal of African American Studies, 11(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-007-9011-8
Rabinowitz, H. N. (1974). From exclusion to segregation: Health and welfare services for southern Blacks, 1865-1890. Social Service Review, 48(3), 327-354. https://doi.org/10.1086/643148
Reardon, J. (2004). Decoding race and human difference in a genomic age. Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, 15(3), 38-65. https://doi.org/10.1215/10407391-15-3-38
Riess, R., & Waldrop, T. (2020, June 11). Louisville council passes ‘Breonna’s Law’ banning no-knock warrants. CNN. Louisville council passes 'Breonna's Law' banning no-knock warrants - CNN
Rockquemore, K. A., Brunsma, D. L., & Delgado, D. J. (2009). Racing to theory or retheorizing race? Understanding the struggle to build a multiracial identity theory. Journal of Social Issues, 65(1), 13-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.01585.x
Salsberg, E., Quigley, L., Mehfoud, N., Acquaviva, K., Wyche, K., Sliwa, S. (2017). Profile of the social work workforce. The George Washington University Health Workforce Institute and School of Nursing. https://hsrc.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/sphhs_policy_workforce_facpubs/16/
Sawchuk, S. (2021, May 18). What is critical race theory, and why is it under attack? Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/what-is-critical-race-theory-and-why-is-it-under-attack/2021/05
Schiele, J. H. (2007). Implications of the equality-of-oppressions paradigm for curriculum content on people of color. Journal of Social Work Education, 43(1), 83-100. https://doi.org/10.5175/jswe.2007.200400478
Seraile, W. (2011). Angels of mercy: White women and the history of New York's Colored orphan asylum. Fordham University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt13x077k
Spade, D. (2020). Mutual aid: Building solidarity during this crisis (and the next). Verso.
Statista Research Department. (2020, August 31). Number of people shot to death by the police in the United States from 2017-2020, by race. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/585152/people-shot-to-death-by-us-police-by-race/
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice. American psychologist, 62(4), 271-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.62.4.271
Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P. (2009). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 183-190. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014191
Tai, D. B. G., Shah, A., Doubeni, C. A., Sia, I. G., & Wieland, M. L. (2020). The disproportionate impact of COVID-10 on racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 72, 705-708. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa815
Tanner, S. J. (2019). Whiteness is a white problem: Whiteness in English education. English Education, 51(2), 182-199. https://library.ncte.org/journals/ee/issues/v51-2
Tew, J. (2006). Understanding power and powerlessness: Towards a framework for emancipatory practice in social work. Journal of social work, 6(1), 33-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017306062222
Tisby, J. (2019). The color of compromise: The truth about the American church’s complicity in racism. Zondervan Reflective.
United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, 261 U.S. 204 (1923). Retrieved October 4, 2020, from https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/261/204/
United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. (2015). Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/opa/press-releases/attachments/2015/03/04/ferguson_police_department_report.pdf
U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). Race. Table ID: B02001. https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=race%20percentages&tid=ACSDT1Y2019.B02001&hidePreview=false
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. (2020). INS records for the 1930 Mexican repatriations. https://www.uscis.gov/about-us/our-history/history-office-and-library/featured-stories-from-the-uscis-history-office-and-library/ins-records-for-1930s-mexican-repatriations
Wagner, E. (2021, January 20). Biden order rescinds diversity training restrictions, requires review of agency equity. Government Executive. https://www.govexec.com/management/2021/01/biden-order-rescinds-diversity-training-restrictions-requires-review-agency-equity/171519/
Washington Post. (2021, February 18). Fatal force. https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/police-shootings-database/
Wellman, D. (1977). Portraits of white racism. Cambridge University Press.
Wilbur, H. K. (2020, November, 13). Colorado’s CROWN act bans natural hair discrimination. Race Discrimination. https://employmentdiscrimination.foxrothschild.com/2020/11/articles/general-employment-discrimination/race-discrimination/colorados-crown-act-bans-natural-hair-discrimination/
Wilson, A., & Beresford, P. (2000). 'Anti-oppressive practice': Emancipation or appropriation? The British Journal of Social Work, 30(5), 553-573. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/30.5.553
Wilson, T. E. (2017). Repairing what’s left in social work, or, when knowledge no longer cuts. British Journal of Social Work, 47(5), 1310-1325. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcw114
Zucchino, D. (2020). Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup of 1898 and the Rise of White Supremacy. Atlantic Monthly Press.